Эпоха пропаганды - Эллиот Аронсон

on political attitudes. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 2, 305–316; Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, fire, and dangerous things. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; Mio, J. S. (1996). Metaphor, politics, and persuasion. In J. S. Mio & A. N. Katz (Eds.), Metaphor: Implications and applications (pp. 127–146). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

104

Kennedy, P. (1991, January 24). A declining empire goes to war. Wall Street Journal.

105

Corbett, E. P. J. (1990). Classical rhetoric for the modem student. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 105.

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Цит. по U.S. News & World Report, May 6, 1991, p. 19.

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What did Bush win? Newsweek, May 13, 1991, p. 27.

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Еще одним примером может послужить то, как Линдон Джонсон применил военную метафору в своей «войне с бедностью». Метафора была полезна для мобилизации нации и сдерживания критики, но в конечном счете потерпела неудачу, когда бедность отказалась сдаваться. См.: Zarefsky, D. (1986). President Johnson’s war on poverty. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.

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Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1984). Choices, values, and frames. American Psychologist, 39, 341–350.

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Meyerowitz, B. E., & Chaiken, S. (1987). The effect of message framing on breast self-examination attitudes, intentions, and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 500–510. For an analysis of how message framing works in persuasion, see Smith, S. M., & Petty, R. E. (1996). Message framing and persuasion: A message processing analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 257–268.

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Lockerbie, B., & Borrelli, S. A. (1990). Question wording and public support for Contra aid, 1983–1986. Public Opinion Quarterly, 54, 195–208. See also Payne, S. L. (1951). The art of asking questions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Другие примеры того, как едва заметные изменения в формулировке могут привести к поразительным переменам в результате. См. Birnbaum, M. H. (1999). How to show that 9 > 221: Collect judgments in a between-subjects design. Psychological Methods, 4, 243–249; Salancik, G. R., & Conway, M. (1975). Attitude inferences from salient and relevant cognitive content about behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 829–840; Steele, C. M., & Ostrom, T. M. (1974). Perspective mediated attitude change: When is indirect persuasion more effective than direct persuasion? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29, 737–741.

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Mitofsky, W. J. (1999, May). Making sense of the polls. Brill’s Content, p. 34.

113

Spence, G. (1986). Trial by fire. New York: Morrow.

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Loftus, E. E, & Palmer, J. C. (1974). Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of the interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13, 585–589; Loftus, E. F. (1977). Shifting human color memory. Memory and Cognition, 5, 696–699.

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Institute for Propaganda Analysis. (1937). How to detect propaganda. Propaganda Analysis, 1, reprinted in Jackall, R. (1995). Propaganda. New York: New York University Press.

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Примеры использования риторических вопросов для подсказки, что именно следует думать о данной проблеме, см.: Petty, R. E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Heesacker, M. (1981). The use of rhetorical questions in persuasion: A cognitive response analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 432-40.

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Pratkanis, A. R., Farquhar, P. H., Silbert, S., & Hearst, J. (1989). Decoys produce contrast effects and alter choice probabilities. Unpublished manuscript. University of California, Santa Cruz. Дополнительные примеры см.: Huber, J., Payne, J. W, & Puto, C. (1982). Adding asymmetrically dominated alternatives: Violations of regularity and similarity. Journal of Consumer Research, 9, 90–98; Tyszka, T. (1983). Contextual multiattribute decision rules. In L. Sjoberg, T. Tyszka, & J. Wise (Eds.), Human decision making. Lund, Sweden: Doxa.

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Kenrick, D. T, & Gutierres, S. E. (1980). Contrast effects in judgments of attractiveness: When beauty becomes a social problem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 131–140.

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Sedikides, C, Ariely, D., & Olsen, N. (1999). Contextual and procedural determinants of partner selection: Of asymmetric dominance and prominence. Social Cognition, 17, 118–139.

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Johnson, D. M. (1945). The “phantom anesthetist” of Mattoon: A field study of mass hysteria. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 40, 175–186.

121

Mailer, N. (1973). Marilyn. New York: Galahad Books, p. 18.

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Дискуссию о психологии слухов см.: Allport, G. W., & Postman, L. (1947). The psychology of rumor. New York: Holt; Cantril, H. (1940). The invasion from Mars. New York: Harper & Row; Rosnow, R. L. (1980). Psychology of rumor reconsidered. Psychological Bulletin, 87, 578–591; Rosnow, R. L., & Fine, G. A. (1976). Rumor and gossip. New York: Elsevier; Shibutani, T. (1966). Improvised news. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill; Sifakis, C. (1993). Hoaxes and scams. New York: Facts on File.

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Patterson, R. G. (1998). The walrus was Paul. New York: Simon & Schuster; Oxfeld, J. (2000, October). Paul was dead. Brill’s Content, pp. 108–111, 144; Reeve, A. J. (1994). Turn me on, dead man: The complete story of the Paul McCartney death hoax. Ann Arbor, MI: Popular Culture Ink.

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Bartholomew, R. E., & Howard, G. S. (1998). UFOs & alien contact. Amherst, NY: Prometheus; Klass, P. J. (1989). UFO abductions: A dangerous game. Amherst, NY: Prometheus; Korff, K. K. (1997). The Roswell UFO crash: What they don’t want you to know. Amherst, NY: Prometheus.

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Dezenhall, E. (1999). Nail ’em. Amherst, NY: Prometheus.